Assessment Re-
port (AR4).
Topic 1 summarises observed changes in climate and their ef-
fects on natural and human systems, regardless of their causes, while
Topic 2 assesses the causes of the observed changes. Topic 3 pre-
sents projections of future climate change and related impacts un-
der different scenarios.
Topic 4 discusses adaptation and mitigation options over the
next few decades
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-based and 10 based on IPCC GCM
simulations. The choice of the GCM models was based on their SAT
performance for the present-day climate near Iceland as mentioned above.
2. For GCM-based scenarios, temperature change in the highland interior of
Iceland, where the large ice caps are located, were increased by 25% based on
the results of RCM downscaling (Nawri & Björnsson, 2010).
3. Expected
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.............................................................................................. 45
5.3 Present weather ..................................................................................... 45
Appendix ......................................................................................................... 47
5
List of Figures
1 How PWD22 determines the type of precipitation. ........................................ 11
2 Number of records as a function of the height
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Av. Ed.
Belin, 31400 Toulouse, France
Received: 21 March 2011 – Published in The Cryosphere Discuss.: 6 April 2011
Revised: 5 October 2011 – Accepted: 20 October 2011 – Published: 2 November 2011
Abstract. The Little Ice Age maximum extent of glaciers in
Iceland was reached about 1890 AD and most glaciers in the
country have retreated during the 20th century. A model for
the surface mass balance
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cover.
In Iceland and other countries located at around the same latitude and further north, low clouds are defined as clouds located up to 2 km in altitude and middle clouds from 2 km up to 4 km in altitude. A third cloud type, not shown on a specific map (however, the information appears on the map for total cloud cover), is high clouds which can reach from 3 km up to 8 km in altitude.
Main
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countries in
hydrological climate change studies, and in Scandinavia HBV is
the most commonly used model type (Vehviläinen and Huttunen,
Table 2
Climate scenarios used in the study (Finnish Meteorological Institute, ENSEMBLES data archive) and their projected annual changes in temperature and precipitation in Finland by
2070–2099 compared with the reference period 1971–2000. The greatest
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plates, is necessary. In order to accurately
interpret observed signals, estimate of a background movement is essential. Figure 2 shows
a suggestion of a base network of GPS stations (volcano monitoring not included). Most of
the currently operating stations are included with additional suggestions to widen the
network.
Table 21 in Appendix V contains the geographic co-ordinates of all CGPS
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: option a is to accept
the distribution and option b is to reject it. In decision 1, the responder chooses between
accepting the distribution (20,0) (20 for the sender and zero for the responder) and rejecting
it; in decision 2, the choice was between accepting (19,1) and rejecting it, and so on up to
decision 21 where the choice was between accepting (0,20) and rejecting it.
The responder’s
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type, surface condition and weather
was noted. In total more than 100 point measure-ments were made during three days (2 and 3 August2006 and 7 August 2007). Measurements weremade on different surface types: ice, snow and firn,
as well as on different surface conditions (dry, wet,clean, dirty). Some of the measurements will be re-ferred to in this paper.
Meteorological observations outside
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