on the quantity at hand (strengths and weaknesses in
Box 1. The error propagation equation
The error propagation equations for the most common
operators are (s is the standard deviation):
Addition and Subtraction: z ¼ x þ yþ/ or z ¼
x y/
sz ¼
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
s2x
þ
s2y
þ/
r
Multiplication by an exact number: z
/media/loftslag/Refsgaard_etal-2007-Uncertainty-EMS.pdf
and the Icelandic Coast Guard, see disclaimer.
The vertical displacement (m) was monitored by near real time presentation of data from a GPS station, mounted in the middle of the caldera. The elevation above sea level, top left, refers to the zero value on the y-axis, while such value top right shows the current position of the station (m a.s.l.).
The upper graph shows the first two weeks, 12 - 25
/earthquakes-and-volcanism/gps-measurements/bardarbunga/caldera/
that the plot is logarithmic, one tick on the y-scale corresponds to a factor of 10. Further, the general trend of the curve should be interpreted, and not single points, as they might be outliers. In both clusters, the moment release was largest shortly before the onset of the fissure eruption in Holuhraun and has decayed ever since.
Seismic activity on the caldera rim has constantly decreased
/earthquakes-and-volcanism/articles/nr/3083
and the Icelandic Coast Guard, see disclaimer.
The vertical displacement (m) was monitored by near real time presentation of data from a GPS station, mounted in the middle of the caldera. The elevation above sea level, top left, refers to the zero value on the y-axis, while such value top right shows the current position of the station (m a.s.l.).
The upper graph shows the first two weeks, 12 - 25
/earthquakes-and-volcanism/gps-measurements/bardarbunga/caldera
fatalities occurred in
mobile homes,
although only 7.6% of
U.S. housing units in
2000.
• A one standard
deviation in the
proportion of mobile
homes in housing stock
(8.3 percentage
points) increases
fatalities by 36% and
injuries by 18%.
The Mobile Home Problem
50
60
70
80
90
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
o
f
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
y
F
a
t
a
l
i
t
i
e
s
Mobile Homes
0
10
20
30
40
F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
F
/media/loftslag/Tornado_Impacts_-_FMI_Presentation.pdf
a
r
a
m
e
t
e
r
s
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
co
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
M
o
i
s
t
u
r
e
co
n
d
i
t
i
o
n
s
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
a
n
d
p
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
M
o
n
t
h
l
y
s
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
s
De
c
o
m
p
o
s
i
t
i
o
n
L
i
t
t
e
r
,
h
u
m
u
s
and dead trees
Tree population
Species composition,
age and size
distribution, growth rate
of different species
Potential growth
/media/ces/CES_BioFuels_Flyer_new.pdf
ECHAM4/OPYC3 NorClim/HIRHAM 25x25 km
'Empirical Adjustment' to 1 x 1 km
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
1 10 100 1000
Return period (years)
P
e
a
k
d
a
i
l
y
d
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e
(
m
3
/
s
)
1981-2010 GEV from annual max series
2021-2050 GEV from annual max series
2021 - 2050 Annual maximum series
1981 - 2010 Annual maximum series
1981-2010
200-year flood
2021
/media/ces/Lawrence_Deborah_CES_2010.pdf
o
t
o
-
a
g
e
n
d
a
D
e
f
i
n
e
a
n
d
i
n
v
i
t
e
s
t
a
k
e
h
o
l
d
e
r
s
T
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l
i
n
p
u
t
a
n
d
v
i
s
i
o
n
s
-
I
n
t
e
r
n
a
l
e
x
p
e
r
t
s
-
s
t
a
k
e
h
o
l
d
e
r
e
x
p
e
r
t
s
F
r
am
e
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
-
t
r
p
s
e
r
v
i
c
e
(
q
u
a
l
i
t
y
)
l
e
v
e
l
s
-
t
y
p
e
s
o
f
s
c
e
n
a
r
i
o
s
A
n
a
l
y
z
e
p
r
o
b
l
e
m
T
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l
i
n
p
u
t
f
r
/media/loftslag/Outline_for_the_case_Road_maintenance_in_a_changing_climate.pdf
.. But with caution
Spatial scale
Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP)
Ecological fallacy: The mistake of assuming that
where relationships are found among aggregate data,
these relationships will also be found among individuals
or households, or vice versa.
Key concepts (from ecology)
Forest cover Population
density
y = -20.1Ln(x) + 60
R2 = 0.84
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 5 10 15
Population density
F
o
re
/media/loftslag/Kok_1-scenarios-lecture-1.pdf